Types of Knowledge
Students come to the classroom with a broad range of pre-existing skills, beliefs, and attitudes, which influence how they interpret and organize in-coming information. The combination of these attributes is what we call prior knowledge. Prior knowledge is should consider is knowing about how to effectively activate prior knowledge. If a student has accurate prior knowledge, new knowledge is more likely to "stick". Familiarity with a subject increases the likelihood that students will learn new information associated with the subject. Use of easy reminders allow instructors to help students activate prior knowledge in order to solve new problems. Designing questions that trigger use of prior knowledge can be helpful when beginning to introduce new information. Student's own relevant experiences can be used to help enable the acquisition and understanding of new information. While doing teacher evaluations, I had many opportunities to witness teachers using questions to help activate relevant prior knowledge of their students. This technique was used for prior knowledge within and outside of their content area. Specifically, I witnessed an English teacher using questions and analogies with students in order to encourage them to use their own experiences and knowledge to relate to a character in a story and help them to better understand the actions of a character in a story.
When a new topic is introduced to a student, they usually are taught basic facts that will establish a low level base of understanding which we call novice knowledge. For example, in a history class, a student may learn significant dates and what events happened then. However, when asked for more detail or how dates and events relate to each other, the student may not be able to "connect the dots". While there is nothing wrong with beginning with basic information, sometimes student learning goes no deeper. In order for students to develop deeper knowledge, teachers must not only teach the basics, but also show examples and give students the opportunity to make connections between isolated facts. That ability to know facts, see their relevance, and use them to problem solve is known as expert knowledge. Most educators are at the expert knowledge level and must strive to get their students to that level as well.
Students come to the classroom with a broad range of pre-existing skills, beliefs, and attitudes, which influence how they interpret and organize in-coming information. The combination of these attributes is what we call prior knowledge. Prior knowledge is should consider is knowing about how to effectively activate prior knowledge. If a student has accurate prior knowledge, new knowledge is more likely to "stick". Familiarity with a subject increases the likelihood that students will learn new information associated with the subject. Use of easy reminders allow instructors to help students activate prior knowledge in order to solve new problems. Designing questions that trigger use of prior knowledge can be helpful when beginning to introduce new information. Student's own relevant experiences can be used to help enable the acquisition and understanding of new information. While doing teacher evaluations, I had many opportunities to witness teachers using questions to help activate relevant prior knowledge of their students. This technique was used for prior knowledge within and outside of their content area. Specifically, I witnessed an English teacher using questions and analogies with students in order to encourage them to use their own experiences and knowledge to relate to a character in a story and help them to better understand the actions of a character in a story.
When a new topic is introduced to a student, they usually are taught basic facts that will establish a low level base of understanding which we call novice knowledge. For example, in a history class, a student may learn significant dates and what events happened then. However, when asked for more detail or how dates and events relate to each other, the student may not be able to "connect the dots". While there is nothing wrong with beginning with basic information, sometimes student learning goes no deeper. In order for students to develop deeper knowledge, teachers must not only teach the basics, but also show examples and give students the opportunity to make connections between isolated facts. That ability to know facts, see their relevance, and use them to problem solve is known as expert knowledge. Most educators are at the expert knowledge level and must strive to get their students to that level as well.
Knowledge Organization
How do we get students to move from having novice knowledge to having expert knowledge? First, we must look at the purpose for learning the information and see how it will be applied and assessed by students. Many call this idea backward design. By first looking at the end, we are better able to develop and design lessons that provide students with knowledge and application to be successful later. For example, if we were to teach a lesson about lab equipment in science, it is necessary for teachers to know what they want students to know when the lesson is complete. If students are expected to use the equipment later, the lesson should be designed to not only be able to identify lab equipment, but also how to use individual pieces, and how multiple pieces of equipment are used together. Students with novice knowledge would be able to tell you the name of each piece of equipment, but students with expert knowledge would be able to also tell you what it is used for, and how it can be used with other equipment to conduct experiments.
The ability of students to go from novice to expert knowledge is also dependent upon how the teacher presents the material. According to Eylon and Reif (1984), how information is organized and presented can greatly affect how it is later applied by students. In the case of a history class, if students are taught about events in chronological order, they will tend to recall it the same way. If they are later asked to explain how events are related in a way other than chronology, they may have a difficult time trying to make such comparisons. By first looking at the desired outcome for students, this history teacher would design the instruction and activities to enable students to better connect elements of various events and prepare them for how they were to be assessed.
How do we get students to move from having novice knowledge to having expert knowledge? First, we must look at the purpose for learning the information and see how it will be applied and assessed by students. Many call this idea backward design. By first looking at the end, we are better able to develop and design lessons that provide students with knowledge and application to be successful later. For example, if we were to teach a lesson about lab equipment in science, it is necessary for teachers to know what they want students to know when the lesson is complete. If students are expected to use the equipment later, the lesson should be designed to not only be able to identify lab equipment, but also how to use individual pieces, and how multiple pieces of equipment are used together. Students with novice knowledge would be able to tell you the name of each piece of equipment, but students with expert knowledge would be able to also tell you what it is used for, and how it can be used with other equipment to conduct experiments.
The ability of students to go from novice to expert knowledge is also dependent upon how the teacher presents the material. According to Eylon and Reif (1984), how information is organized and presented can greatly affect how it is later applied by students. In the case of a history class, if students are taught about events in chronological order, they will tend to recall it the same way. If they are later asked to explain how events are related in a way other than chronology, they may have a difficult time trying to make such comparisons. By first looking at the desired outcome for students, this history teacher would design the instruction and activities to enable students to better connect elements of various events and prepare them for how they were to be assessed.
Depth of Knowledge
The density and quantity of connections between information greatly impact the depth of knowledge and speed to which it is recalled. Ambrose et al. believe (as cited in Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982; Reder & Anderson 1980; Smith, Adams & Schorr, 1978) that students have a more difficult time recalling information or recall will occur less rapidly if there are not strongly connected knowledge organizations.
One strategy that educators can use to help students develop stronger connections between knowledge is called chunking. Chunking occurs when students combine separate pieces of information together into one concept that is easy to recall. For instance, associating numbers with dates or ages is very common. When I was younger, the last 4 digits of my dad's cell phone number were 2-3-9-5. Rather than remembering the digits separately, my dad associated them with the idea that I was 23 years old in 1995, thus 23 in 95. This is a small, easy example, but the same could be done for larger more complex information. In order for me to remember his number, he provided me with this method of remembering. In much the same way, according to Bower et al. 1969, students who are given category information to help with recall performed much better than those who were provided with no structure at all.
The density and quantity of connections between information greatly impact the depth of knowledge and speed to which it is recalled. Ambrose et al. believe (as cited in Bradshaw & Anderson, 1982; Reder & Anderson 1980; Smith, Adams & Schorr, 1978) that students have a more difficult time recalling information or recall will occur less rapidly if there are not strongly connected knowledge organizations.
One strategy that educators can use to help students develop stronger connections between knowledge is called chunking. Chunking occurs when students combine separate pieces of information together into one concept that is easy to recall. For instance, associating numbers with dates or ages is very common. When I was younger, the last 4 digits of my dad's cell phone number were 2-3-9-5. Rather than remembering the digits separately, my dad associated them with the idea that I was 23 years old in 1995, thus 23 in 95. This is a small, easy example, but the same could be done for larger more complex information. In order for me to remember his number, he provided me with this method of remembering. In much the same way, according to Bower et al. 1969, students who are given category information to help with recall performed much better than those who were provided with no structure at all.
Knowledge Structures
While it is important for learners to be able to make connections and categorize knowledge, it is important that those connections and categories are relevant to learning and not made on a superficial basis. First, Ambrose believes (as cited from Chi & VanLehn, 1991; Hinsley, Hayes, & SImon 1977; Ross, 1987, 1989) that those with novice knowledge may be prone to categorizing information by superficial characteristics (put all of the yellow things in a group), rather than categorizing them by relevant traits. Conversely, those with expert knowledge have a better understanding of the relevant qualities of given items and can categorize them appropriately.
Secondly, having expert level knowledge enables someone to look at a problem or situation and determine, 1) How it occurred, and 2) How to solve or fix it. For example, a coach of a team sport must have expert knowledge in order to see how and why a play occurred and how to counter it in the future. Someone with novice knowledge would be like a fan in the bleachers who yells because they don't like what they saw, but didn't really understand how or why it transpired.
While it is important for learners to be able to make connections and categorize knowledge, it is important that those connections and categories are relevant to learning and not made on a superficial basis. First, Ambrose believes (as cited from Chi & VanLehn, 1991; Hinsley, Hayes, & SImon 1977; Ross, 1987, 1989) that those with novice knowledge may be prone to categorizing information by superficial characteristics (put all of the yellow things in a group), rather than categorizing them by relevant traits. Conversely, those with expert knowledge have a better understanding of the relevant qualities of given items and can categorize them appropriately.
Secondly, having expert level knowledge enables someone to look at a problem or situation and determine, 1) How it occurred, and 2) How to solve or fix it. For example, a coach of a team sport must have expert knowledge in order to see how and why a play occurred and how to counter it in the future. Someone with novice knowledge would be like a fan in the bleachers who yells because they don't like what they saw, but didn't really understand how or why it transpired.
Takeaways
Strategies for Enhancing Knowledge Organization
#1. Allow students to create concept maps. The concept map allows students or groups of students to visualize their thoughts and to discuss them, and it also allows the teacher a chance to "see" what students are thinking and correct misconceptions before they occur.
#2. Provide students with a guide or graphic organizer to order their thoughts. Having a guide will help them to avoid mistakes or misunderstandings.
#3. Provide a syllabus for the course or something that represents the overall concepts of the course and how they relate to each other. Throughout the course it is important to refer to this and remind students that prior information will be important to current and future knowledge to be gained.
#4. Provide an overview or outline of each lesson or activity so that students know how it relates to others and the "big picture". Providing this will help students organize new information and see how it relates to previous knowledge.
#5. Compare and contrast items to show how they differ. Some things may look or seem the same to someone with novice knowledge, but by using examples of how like things differ, students will have a better understanding of key concepts and avoid incorrectly categorizing them. Contrasting items will help students to see differences in things, that to the novice, may look or seem the same.
#6. Look at deep or subtle features of different items or ideas, and bring special attention to them. Like stated in #5, this will give students a deeper understanding of items being discussed, and give students greater knowledge of how to use or apply them in the future.
#7. Make special mention of previous concepts when you introduce new ones. Ask questions of students that require them to think back to previous concepts and compare or contrast them to the new. By doing so, students will develop a connection between them that will help them to attain expert knowledge.
#8. Reinforce to students that concepts may be organized in more than one way. Encourage them to look at multiple ways of categorizing information in order for them to consider all sides and develop a deeper understanding of concepts.
#9. Check for misunderstanding by frequently checking student work. This pertains to graded and ungraded work, before, during and at the end of lessons or units. If students are confusing concepts, examine how they were introduced and reteach or re-explain if necessary.
#1. Allow students to create concept maps. The concept map allows students or groups of students to visualize their thoughts and to discuss them, and it also allows the teacher a chance to "see" what students are thinking and correct misconceptions before they occur.
#2. Provide students with a guide or graphic organizer to order their thoughts. Having a guide will help them to avoid mistakes or misunderstandings.
#3. Provide a syllabus for the course or something that represents the overall concepts of the course and how they relate to each other. Throughout the course it is important to refer to this and remind students that prior information will be important to current and future knowledge to be gained.
#4. Provide an overview or outline of each lesson or activity so that students know how it relates to others and the "big picture". Providing this will help students organize new information and see how it relates to previous knowledge.
#5. Compare and contrast items to show how they differ. Some things may look or seem the same to someone with novice knowledge, but by using examples of how like things differ, students will have a better understanding of key concepts and avoid incorrectly categorizing them. Contrasting items will help students to see differences in things, that to the novice, may look or seem the same.
#6. Look at deep or subtle features of different items or ideas, and bring special attention to them. Like stated in #5, this will give students a deeper understanding of items being discussed, and give students greater knowledge of how to use or apply them in the future.
#7. Make special mention of previous concepts when you introduce new ones. Ask questions of students that require them to think back to previous concepts and compare or contrast them to the new. By doing so, students will develop a connection between them that will help them to attain expert knowledge.
#8. Reinforce to students that concepts may be organized in more than one way. Encourage them to look at multiple ways of categorizing information in order for them to consider all sides and develop a deeper understanding of concepts.
#9. Check for misunderstanding by frequently checking student work. This pertains to graded and ungraded work, before, during and at the end of lessons or units. If students are confusing concepts, examine how they were introduced and reteach or re-explain if necessary.
